The End of the Empire: Independence in Asia (p. 1095-1106)
India's Partitioned Independence The Coming Of Self-Rule After the end of WWII, Britain began to help India gain independence. As Indian Independence became more likely, the Muslim seperatism grew in fear of being controlled by the Hindus. Muslim and Hindu tensions began to rise. The Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, called for a Day of Direct Action. The Great Calcutta Killing happened in turn as Muslims and Hindus fought. Riots also broke out and
thousands were dead. Jinnah claimed "The only solution to India's problem is Pakistan" to show that India needed a strong ally.
Partition and Violence
Certain Indian leaders like Gandhi and Jawaharal Nehru opposed the idea of partition, which was the process of separating Muslim and Hindu states. Gandhi referred to partitioning as a "vivisection", a term used for the cutting up of bodies. Gandhi felt like India should be united as one single state, rather than dividing the Muslims and Hindus. Eventually, though, India was divided into Muslim Pakistan and Hindu india. Millions migrated to either a Muslim or Hindu state. About one million people died on their journey from diseases or starvation and Gandhi was later assassinated by a Hindu extremist Conflict between India and Pakistan
After Gandhi's death many were shocked, yet the separation and independence efforts continued. HIndu India and Muslim Pakistan began to fight over the province of Kashmir. When Pakistan lost, it sought alliance with the U.S. India, then allied with the Soviet Union. Although Indian independence was a violent movement, it inspired many countries and encouraged anti-imperial movements.The British later realized Europeans couldn't rule in Asia and relied on their own decolonization methods. Although India and Pakistan were free from British rule, they remained their ties with Britain, causing them to become members to the British Commonwealth and adopt English as their first official language. Nonalignment The nonalignment movement was proposed by Nehru as an alternative for the cold war alliances. The Nonalignment policy was that India wouldn't align with or against a superpower. Many of the nonaligned nations came together at the Bandung Conference to discuss their policies. The Conference was to discuss a "third path", which was finding and alternative from having to chose between the Soviet union or the United States. The Conference also stressed the opposition to colonialis m and racism. Although Nehru thought of the movement as a good idea, it failed. Many of the countries in the nonalignment movement began to seek help from either the United States or the Soviet Union.
Nationalist Struggles in Vietnam Fighting the French
At first, Vietnam's main goal after WWII was to free themselves from French rule. The Japanese conquest of Vietnam ended French Rule and Vietnam's nationalist communist leader, Ho Chi Minh, helped the Japanese in turn. Minh also issued the Vietnamese Declaration of Independence modeled after the U.S. After the French were defeated, they decided to reclaim their status and recaptured Saigon and southern Vietnam. The French also attempted to take back the north by bombing cities. Vietnamese resistance forces, known as Viet Minh, began ca
mpaigning guerilla warfare. Other anti-imperial states became influenced by the Vietnamese and some states sent aid like when China sent arms to the Viet Minh. The Viet Minh forces broke through and defeated the French, causing them to call for peace. The Geneva Conference and Partial Independence The peace conference was held in Geneva and determined that Vietnam would be divided temporarily on the 17th parallel. The north was to be controlled by Minh and communist forces while the south was to be controlled by noncommunists. The Geneva agreements said Minh would have likely brought power to Ho Chi Minh in the elections. South Vietnam's leaders, aided by the U.S., violated the Geneva Agreements by avoiding elections. The South wanted to build a government to stop the spread of communism throughout Vietnam and Asia. Growing discontent led to the spread of guerrilla warfare in southern Vietnam. Vietnamese nationalists organized the National Liberation Front in an effort to free themselves from South Vietnamese rule. Even though a majority of the party's leaders were from the south, they recieved aid, weapons, and troops from the north. The north then received economic and military assistance from the Soviet Union and the Chinese. Cold War Stalemate
The northern communist vietnam continually succeeded in attacking southern Vietnam due to the lack of U.S. support. U.S. president Lyndon Johnson increased U.S. involvement with Vietnam by issuing a bomb campaign against Northern Vietnam. Johnson also ordered U.S. troops to help the South Vietnamese army. Although the south was greatly supported, the best achievement against the north was a draw. The U.S troops and southern troops could not defeat the north and were put in dangerous situations. Still, a long struggle remained in Vietnam
Arab National States and the Problem of Palestine
Arab Independence
All of the Arab states of southwest Asia, besides Palestine, had it very easily freeing themselves from the colonial powers of France and Britain after WWII. Before the war, the Arab states limited the Arab Nationalist aspirations by agitating for concessions under the mandate system just after the Great War. After the war significant vestiges of imperial rule impeded Arab sovereignty. Then the battle to rid southwest Asia of the remaining imperialism rule took many twists and turns as the superpowers interfered in the region. These powers were drawn to the Arab states due to their vast reserves of oil and the lifeblood of the cold war's military-industrial complexes.
Palestine
Great Britain served as the mandate power in in Palestine after the Great War, and during its mandate made conflicting promises to the Palestinian Arabs and to the Jewish people who were migrating to Palestine to establish a secure homeland where they could avoid persecution. The Balfour Declaration of 1917 allowed the British government to support the homeland of the Jews in making a homeland in Palestine and played a part in the Zionist movement in Europe. However the British had to protect the Arab's political and economic rights, and due to the Balfour Declaration they had to allow the Jewish people to migrate to Palestine since they believe that it was the Jewish homeland. So the British limited the migration to Palestine. This attempt to balance the causes of two conflicting groups was unsuccessful, and large-scale violence broke out. Arab Palestinians resisted both British rule and Jewish settlement violently. Jewish migration to Palestine increased greatly in-order to escape Nazis concentration camps and persecution.
The Creation of Isreal
Unable to resolve conflict between the Arabs and the Jewish people ,Britain turned Palestine question over to UN, 1947. UN proposed dividing into two states, Palestine for the Arabs and Israel for the Jewish. The U.S and the Soviet Union both agreed to this, but the Arabs opposed and civil war broke out in 1947. Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq declared war on Israel in support on Palestinian Arabs. Israel achieved victory in 1949 and claimed territories larger than what was granted by UN plan. In 1949 a truce went into effect under the UN auspices, and the partition of Palestine resulted. Jerusalem and the Jordan River Vally were divided between the new Israeli state and the Kingdom of Jordan.
Egypt and Arab Nationalism
Military leaders under Gamal A. Nasser seized power in 1952 and became prime minister, a leader of pan-Arab nationalism.Egyptian military leaders, particularly officers under the leadership of Gamal Abdel Nasser, committed themselves to opposing Israel and taking command of the Arab world. Forsaking constitutional government and democratic principles, they began a political revolution and campaign of state reform through militarism, suppressing the ideological and religious opposition organized by communists and the Muslim Brotherhood. Egypt neutral in cold war, accepted aid from both the United States and the Soviet Union. Nasser dedicated himself to ending imperialism and destroying state of Israel. He gave aid to the Algerians in their war against the French. Nasser didn't neglect the remaining imperialism in his own land: he Abolished British military rights to the Suez Canal in 1954
The Suez Crisis
Canal controlled by Britain; Nasser nationalized it and used the money it made to build Egypt's economy. When Nasser did not give into the international pressure to provide multinational control for the Suez Canal. There for he was attacked by British, French, and Israeli forces, and their combined force retook the canal from him. SInce the British, French, and Israel did't consult the U.S. and the Soviet Union, both superpowers condemned military action and forced them to withdraw. Afterwards, the Suez Crisis divided the United States and its allies in the Western Europe.
The End of the Empire: Independence in Asia (p. 1095-1106)
India's Partitioned Independence
The Coming Of Self-Rule
After the end of WWII, Britain began to help India gain independence. As Indian Independence became more likely, the Muslim seperatism grew in fear of being controlled by the Hindus. Muslim and Hindu tensions began to rise. The Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, called for a Day of Direct Action. The Great Calcutta Killing happened in turn as Muslims and Hindus fought. Riots also broke out and
thousands were dead. Jinnah claimed "The only solution to India's problem is Pakistan" to show that India needed a strong ally.
Partition and Violence
Certain Indian leaders like Gandhi and Jawaharal Nehru opposed the idea of partition, which was the process of separating Muslim and Hindu states. Gandhi referred to partitioning as a "vivisection", a term used for the cutting up of bodies. Gandhi felt like India should be united as one single state, rather than dividing the Muslims and Hindus. Eventually, though, India was divided into Muslim Pakistan and Hindu india. Millions migrated to either a Muslim or Hindu state. About one million people died on their journey from diseases or starvation and Gandhi was later assassinated by a Hindu extremist
Conflict between India and Pakistan
After Gandhi's death many were shocked, yet the separation and independence efforts continued. HIndu India and Muslim Pakistan began to fight over the province of Kashmir. When Pakistan lost, it sought alliance with the U.S. India, then allied with the Soviet Union. Although Indian independence was a violent movement, it inspired many countries and encouraged anti-imperial movements.The British later realized Europeans couldn't rule in Asia and relied on their own decolonization methods. Although India and Pakistan were free from British rule, they remained their ties with Britain, causing them to become members to the British Commonwealth and adopt English as their first official language.
Nonalignment
The nonalignment movement was proposed by Nehru as an alternative for the cold war alliances. The Nonalignment policy was that India wouldn't align with or against a superpower. Many of the nonaligned nations came together at the Bandung Conference to discuss their policies. The Conference was to discuss a "third path", which was finding and alternative from having to chose between the Soviet union or the United States. The Conference also stressed the opposition to colonialis
m and racism. Although Nehru thought of the movement as a good idea, it failed. Many of the countries in the nonalignment movement began to seek help from either the United States or the Soviet Union.
Nationalist Struggles in Vietnam
Fighting the French
At first, Vietnam's main goal after WWII was to free themselves from French rule. The Japanese conquest of Vietnam ended French Rule and Vietnam's nationalist communist leader, Ho Chi Minh, helped the Japanese in turn. Minh also issued the Vietnamese Declaration of Independence modeled after the U.S. After the French were defeated, they decided to reclaim their status and recaptured Saigon and southern Vietnam. The French also attempted to take back the north by bombing cities. Vietnamese resistance forces, known as Viet Minh, began ca
mpaigning guerilla warfare. Other anti-imperial states became influenced by the Vietnamese and some states sent aid like when China sent arms to the Viet Minh. The Viet Minh forces broke through and defeated the French, causing them to call for peace.
The Geneva Conference and Partial Independence
The peace conference was held in Geneva and determined that Vietnam would be divided temporarily on the 17th parallel. The north was to be controlled by Minh and communist forces while the south was to be controlled by noncommunists. The Geneva agreements said Minh would have likely brought power to Ho Chi Minh in the elections. South Vietnam's leaders, aided by the U.S., violated the Geneva Agreements by avoiding elections. The South wanted to build a government to stop the spread of communism throughout Vietnam and Asia. Growing discontent led to the spread of guerrilla warfare in southern Vietnam. Vietnamese nationalists organized the National Liberation Front in an effort to free themselves from South Vietnamese rule. Even though a majority of the party's leaders were from the south, they recieved aid, weapons, and troops from the north. The north then received economic and military assistance from the Soviet Union and the Chinese.
Cold War Stalemate
The northern communist vietnam continually succeeded in attacking southern Vietnam due to the lack of U.S. support. U.S. president Lyndon Johnson increased U.S. involvement with Vietnam by issuing a bomb campaign against Northern Vietnam. Johnson also ordered U.S. troops to help the South Vietnamese army. Although the south was greatly supported, the best achievement against the north was a draw. The U.S troops and southern troops could not defeat the north and were put in dangerous situations. Still, a long struggle remained in Vietnam
Arab National States and the Problem of Palestine
Arab Independence
All of the Arab states of southwest Asia, besides Palestine, had it very easily freeing themselves from the colonial powers of France and Britain after WWII. Before the war, the Arab states limited the Arab Nationalist aspirations by agitating for concessions under the mandate system just after the Great War. After the war significant vestiges of imperial rule impeded Arab sovereignty. Then the battle to rid southwest Asia of the remaining imperialism rule took many twists and turns as the superpowers interfered in the region. These powers were drawn to the Arab states due to their vast reserves of oil and the lifeblood of the cold war's military-industrial complexes.Palestine
Great Britain served as the mandate power in in Palestine after the Great War, and during its mandate made conflicting promises to the Palestinian Arabs and to the Jewish people who were migrating to Palestine to establish a secure homeland where they could avoid persecution. The Balfour Declaration of 1917 allowed the British government to support the homeland of the Jews in making a homeland in Palestine and played a part in the Zionist movement in Europe. However the British had to protect the Arab's political and economic rights, and due to the Balfour Declaration they had to allow the Jewish people to migrate to Palestine since they believe that it was the Jewish homeland. So the British limited the migration to Palestine. This attempt to balance the causes of two conflicting groups was unsuccessful, and large-scale violence broke out. Arab Palestinians resisted both British rule and Jewish settlement violently. Jewish migration to Palestine increased greatly in-order to escape Nazis concentration camps and persecution.The Creation of Isreal
Unable to resolve conflict between the Arabs and the Jewish people ,Britain turned Palestine question over to UN, 1947. UN proposed dividing into two states, Palestine for the Arabs and Israel for the Jewish. The U.S and the Soviet Union both agreed to this, but the Arabs opposed and civil war broke out in 1947. Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq declared war on Israel in support on Palestinian Arabs. Israel achieved victory in 1949 and claimed territories larger than what was granted by UN plan. In 1949 a truce went into effect under the UN auspices, and the partition of Palestine resulted. Jerusalem and the Jordan River Vally were divided between the new Israeli state and the Kingdom of Jordan.Egypt and Arab Nationalism
Military leaders under Gamal A. Nasser seized power in 1952 and became prime minister, a leader of pan-Arab nationalism.Egyptian military leaders, particularly officers under the leadership of Gamal Abdel Nasser, committed themselves to opposing Israel and taking command of the Arab world. Forsaking constitutional government and democratic principles, they began a political revolution and campaign of state reform through militarism, suppressing the ideological and religious opposition organized by communists and the Muslim Brotherhood. Egypt neutral in cold war, accepted aid from both the United States and the Soviet Union. Nasser dedicated himself to ending imperialism and destroying state of Israel. He gave aid to the Algerians in their war against the French. Nasser didn't neglect the remaining imperialism in his own land: he Abolished British military rights to the Suez Canal in 1954
The Suez Crisis
Canal controlled by Britain; Nasser nationalized it and used the money it made to build Egypt's economy. When Nasser did not give into the international pressure to provide multinational control for the Suez Canal. There for he was attacked by British, French, and Israeli forces, and their combined force retook the canal from him. SInce the British, French, and Israel did't consult the U.S. and the Soviet Union, both superpowers condemned military action and forced them to withdraw. Afterwards, the Suez Crisis divided the United States and its allies in the Western Europe.